Extant gymnosperms are classified into four main groups: Cycadopsida (cycads), Ginkgopsida (ginkgo), Pinopsida (conifers), and Gnetopsida (gnetophytes). These groups represent the diverse evolutionary survivors of the gymnosperm lineage, each possessing unique reproductive and vegetative characteristics.

Extant cycads are classified into three distinct families: Cycadaceae, Stangeriaceae, and Zamiaceae. These families represent the surviving lineages of an ancient group of gymnosperms that were once much more diverse during the Mesozoic era. They are characterized by their palm-like appearance and the production of seeds in cones.

There are four major living lineages of gymnosperms: Cycadophyta (cycads), Ginkgophyta (ginkgo), Gnetophyta (gnetophytes), and Coniferophyta (conifers). These groups represent the surviving diversity of seed plants that do not produce flowers.

Cycads are gymnosperms known for their unique stem anatomy, which includes girdling leaf traces. These traces originate from the vascular cylinder and curve around the stem before entering the leaf base. This anatomical feature is a diagnostic characteristic used in the identification and classification of cycads, distinguishing them from other gymnosperm groups like conifers.

Ginkgo biloba, often called the maidenhair tree, is a unique species with no close living relatives. It is the sole surviving member of the division Ginkgophyta and the class Ginkgopsida. It is considered a 'living fossil' because it has remained largely unchanged for millions of years, showing characteristics of both gymnosperms and ferns.

John Merle Coulter, a prominent American botanist, provided a systematic classification of gymnosperms in his early works. He recognized six distinct orders within the group, reflecting the morphological diversity of these seed-bearing plants. This classification system was significant in the historical development of gymnosperm taxonomy, helping to organize the various families based on reproductive structures and vegetative characteristics.

Modern gymnosperms are classified into four distinct living divisions: Cycadophyta (cycads), Ginkgophyta (ginkgo), Pinophyta (conifers), and Gnetophyta (gnetophytes). Each division exhibits unique morphological and reproductive characteristics, representing the evolutionary diversity of seed-bearing plants that do not produce flowers or fruits.

Modern classification systems typically divide the extant gymnosperms into four distinct divisions: Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Pinophyta (Coniferophyta), and Gnetophyta. These divisions represent the major evolutionary lineages of seed-bearing plants that do not produce flowers, reflecting their distinct morphological and genetic characteristics.

The phylum Gnetophyta is unique among gymnosperms because its members possess vessel elements in their xylem, a trait typically associated with angiosperms. While they produce seeds, they lack true flowers. This anatomical similarity to angiosperms has historically led to significant debate regarding the evolutionary relationships between Gnetophytes and flowering plants.

The division Ginkgophyta is represented by a single extant species, Ginkgo biloba. This division is placed within the class Ginkgoopsida (often spelled Ginkopsida in some texts). This class is distinct from other gymnosperm classes due to the unique morphological and reproductive features of the Ginkgo tree, which is often referred to as a living fossil.