Aristotle is the name of the philosopher himself. Nicomachus was the name of his father and also the name of his son, to whom he dedicated his famous work, the 'Nicomachean Ethics'. Plato's original name was Aristocles, and Machiavelli is a distinct historical figure from the Renaissance.

Aristotle's constitutionalism is rooted in the idea of the 'polity,' where the government acts in the interest of the common good and operates under the rule of law. He believed that a stable state requires the active participation of virtuous citizens. Therefore, any system that degrades the dignity or self-respect of its citizens contradicts his vision of a functional and ethical constitutional state.

In 'De Anima', Aristotle categorizes the soul into three levels: the vegetative (nutritive), the animal (sensitive/locomotive), and the rational (intellectual). The concept of the 'unconscious' is a modern psychological construct, primarily associated with 19th and 20th-century psychoanalysis. Aristotle's framework focuses on the functional capacities of living beings rather than hidden mental states or repressed drives.

In Book XII of the Metaphysics, Aristotle categorizes substances into three types: two are sensible (perishable and eternal, such as celestial bodies) and one is immovable and eternal (the divine or the unmoved mover). This classification is central to his metaphysical inquiry into the nature of reality and being.

Aristotle defined citizenship based on the capacity to participate in the deliberative or judicial administration of the state. In his view, slaves, children, and resident aliens (metics) were excluded from political participation. The concept of a formal 'clergy' as a distinct political class did not exist in the same way in ancient Greek city-states as it did in later medieval contexts, making it the least applicable category for exclusion.

Aristotle argued that the polis exists not merely for the sake of life, but for the sake of the 'good life'. The ultimate objective is to enable citizens to practice virtue and achieve eudaimonia (flourishing or excellence). While security and survival are necessary conditions, they are only the foundation for the higher purpose of moral and intellectual development.

The 'Protrepticus' is an early work by Aristotle written in the form of an exhortation to philosophy, modeled after Plato's style. It is not considered part of the core scientific treatises like 'Physics', 'On the Heavens', or 'Meteorology', which focus on empirical natural phenomena.

Aristotle argued in his 'Politics' that the state is the final and most perfect form of human association. He viewed it as a natural evolution starting from the family, which expands into the village, and finally culminates in the state, which is necessary for humans to achieve a self-sufficient and virtuous life.

Callisthenes of Olynthus was a Greek historian and a relative of Aristotle who accompanied Alexander the Great on his Asian campaign. He was eventually arrested and executed for his alleged involvement in a conspiracy against Alexander's life. His death caused a significant rift between Aristotle and Alexander, as Callisthenes had been a student of Aristotle and was highly regarded by him for his intellectual contributions.

Aristotle, in his work 'Nicomachean Ethics', posits that justice is a proportional concept where individuals receive what is rightfully theirs based on their merit and contribution to the community. This distributive justice framework remains a cornerstone of Western political thought, emphasizing that fairness is achieved when rewards and burdens are allocated according to a person's specific desert or status within the social order.