Historical materialism is the methodological approach of Marxist historiography that focuses on human societies and their development through time. It posits that the material conditions of a society's mode of production fundamentally determine its social structure, political systems, and cultural consciousness, driving historical change through class struggle.

Marx argued that capitalism inherently creates misery and alienation for the proletariat. Option D is incorrect because Marx believed capitalism traps workers in a cycle of economic insecurity and exploitation, rather than freeing them from economic worries. This struggle against exploitation, not economic freedom, is what Marx identified as the catalyst for the eventual proletarian revolution.

The collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in the end of the bipolar Cold War structure, the emergence of 15 independent sovereign states, and a significant shift in global power dynamics toward a unipolar moment led by the United States. However, it did not result in the emergence of a 'new' dominant power, as the United States was already an established superpower; rather, it left the U.S. as the sole remaining superpower.

Marxist theory posits that class divisions were not inherent to human nature but emerged with the transition to sedentary agriculture. This shift allowed for the accumulation of a surplus product, which led to the development of private property. Once individuals could own the means of production, society split into those who owned the land and those who worked it, forming the basis for class-based social structures.

Surplus value is the core of Marx's critique of capitalism. He argued that workers produce more value during their working day than they receive in the form of wages. This 'surplus' is appropriated by the capitalist, which Marx identified as the source of exploitation and the mechanism by which capital accumulates at the expense of the working class.

Karl Marx is considered the most influential theorist regarding the study of revolution. His theory of historical materialism posits that revolutions are the inevitable result of class struggle arising from contradictions between the forces of production and the relations of production. His analysis provided a comprehensive framework for understanding how economic structures drive political upheaval, profoundly shaping modern political discourse and revolutionary movements worldwide.

Classical Marxism emphasizes that the existing capitalist state apparatus is inherently designed to protect the interests of the ruling class. Therefore, Marx and Engels argued that meaningful structural change cannot be achieved through existing legal or constitutional frameworks, which are viewed as bourgeois constructs. Instead, they advocated for a proletarian revolution to overthrow the capitalist system and establish a new social order.

Marxist theory posits that the fundamental driver of political and social change is the conflict between different economic classes. Marx, Engels, and Lenin argued that political systems are essentially reflections of the underlying class structure, where the ruling class uses the state apparatus to maintain its dominance over the proletariat, making class struggle the central analytical lens for understanding political systems.

This famous dictum is central to Karl Marx's theory of historical materialism. Marx argued that the economic base—the mode of production and the relations of production—forms the foundation of society. This base dictates the 'superstructure,' which includes legal, political, and cultural consciousness. Thus, social being determines consciousness, not the other way around, emphasizing the primacy of material reality in shaping human history and social structures.

Marx and Engels famously argued in 'The Communist Manifesto' that the state is not a neutral arbiter of society's interests. Instead, they described the executive of the modern state as merely a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie, serving to protect the interests of the capitalist class against the proletariat.