The German Confederation existed from 1815 to 1866. The Swiss Confederacy, in its specific historical form mentioned, spanned 1815 to 1840. The American Confederacy (Articles of Confederation period) lasted from 1781 to 1789. The Commonwealth of Independent States was established in 1991 and continues to exist today. Option D correctly aligns these historical entities with their respective operational timeframes.

A flexible constitution allows for rapid changes, which can be dangerous in a society lacking political maturity. Without an informed electorate to hold leaders accountable, a flexible system can be easily manipulated by those in power to serve narrow interests, potentially undermining democratic stability and the rule of law.

The Declaration of Independence was a historic document adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. It announced that the thirteen American colonies, then at war with Great Britain, regarded themselves as thirteen independent sovereign states, no longer under British rule. This event is celebrated annually as Independence Day in the United States, marking the formal break from the British monarchy.

The medieval feudal order was traditionally structured into three distinct estates: the nobility, who held land and provided military protection; the clergy, who managed spiritual life and education; and the toilers, or peasantry, who provided the labor necessary to sustain the economy. This tripartite division defined the social, political, and economic hierarchy of medieval Europe, ensuring stability through mutual obligations between the classes.

A rigid constitution is often praised for its stability and ability to protect fundamental rights from temporary political whims. While critics argue it may be slow to adapt or overly conservative, the claim that it fails to safeguard rights is generally considered incorrect, as its rigidity is specifically designed to prevent arbitrary changes to those very protections.

While the desire for stability was a societal outcome, the consolidation of royal power was primarily driven by active political and religious shifts, such as the decline of feudalism and the weakening of ecclesiastical authority. The provided answer suggests that the desire for stability was not a direct causal factor in the structural consolidation of the state, which is a common perspective in historical political analysis.

Early Oriental Empires were characterized by highly centralized, autocratic rule. The authority of the monarch was absolute, often justified by religious or traditional status. This system of governance, known as despotism, allowed the ruler to exercise total control over the state's resources, population, and administrative functions without significant institutional checks.

The 16th century marked the beginning of the Age of Discovery and the subsequent rise of colonial empires. European powers, notably Spain and Portugal, initiated the systematic establishment of overseas territories in the Americas and beyond. This era laid the groundwork for global trade networks and the geopolitical dominance of European states, which would define international relations for several centuries to follow.

Decolonization refers to the process by which colonies become independent of the colonizing country. This process gained significant momentum following World War II, as various nationalist movements across Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean sought self-determination. It involves the dismantling of colonial administrative structures and the establishment of sovereign states, fundamentally altering the global political map and the nature of international relations.

Sir Henry Maine was a prominent legal historian known for his work on the development of legal systems. His book 'Ancient Law' is his most famous contribution, but he also authored 'Early History of Institutions,' which explores the evolution of legal and social structures from primitive societies to modern states, emphasizing the transition from status to contract.