In operant conditioning, reinforcement (both positive and negative) is designed to increase the frequency of a behavior. Shaping also utilizes reinforcement to guide behavior toward a target. Conversely, punishment is specifically defined as a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated in the future. Therefore, punishment is the only option listed that does not aim to increase response probability.

A secondary reinforcer, or conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (like food or water). Money is the classic example of a secondary reinforcer because it has no intrinsic biological value but is highly valued because it can be exchanged for primary reinforcers. It functions as a generalized reinforcer in human society.

In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is defined as any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. While 'reinforcement' is the technical term, it is frequently colloquially referred to as a 'reward' because it functions to satisfy a need or provide a positive outcome that encourages the subject to perform the action again.

In operant conditioning, reinforcement schedules determine how often a behavior is rewarded. Variable schedules, where reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable amount of time (variable interval) or number of responses (variable ratio), are highly resistant to extinction. Because the organism cannot predict when the next reward will occur, it continues to perform the behavior for a longer period even after reinforcement stops, as it expects that a reward might be just around the corner.

Secondary reinforcers, also known as conditioned reinforcers, are stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers. Examples include money, grades, or tokens. By pairing these neutral stimuli with primary rewards, they become effective tools for shaping and maintaining desired behaviors in various settings, including educational and workplace environments.

Psychological research on operant conditioning indicates that punishment is most effective when it is applied immediately following the behavior, is consistent every time the behavior occurs, and is sufficiently intense to be aversive. If punishment is delayed, the association between the behavior and the consequence is weakened. If it is inconsistent, the behavior may be intermittently reinforced. High intensity ensures the consequence is perceived as a deterrent, effectively suppressing the target behavior.

Partial reinforcement, also known as intermittent reinforcement, occurs when a response is reinforced only some of the time rather than every time it occurs. This method is essential for maintaining behaviors over long periods, as it makes the behavior more robust and less susceptible to extinction compared to continuous reinforcement schedules.

Variable interval schedules provide reinforcement at unpredictable time intervals. Because the subject cannot predict when the next reinforcement will occur, the behavior persists for a long time even when reinforcement is withheld. While variable ratio is often cited for high response rates, variable interval schedules are highly effective at maintaining behavior against extinction.

Tolman's research challenged strict behaviorist views by demonstrating latent learning. In his experiments, rats navigated a maze without receiving immediate reinforcement. They developed a cognitive map of the environment, which was only revealed when a reward was introduced later. This proved that learning can occur in the absence of immediate reinforcement and remains latent until a motivation to perform arises.

Negative reinforcement involves the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus following a behavior, which increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future. It is distinct from punishment, which aims to decrease behavior.