Labeling theory, a branch of symbolic interactionism, posits that deviance and illness are not inherent qualities but are instead defined by societal reactions. According to this view, whether a specific set of behaviors or symptoms is labeled as an 'illness' depends on social context, cultural norms, and the power of those who apply the labels.

Differential association theory, developed by Edwin Sutherland, posits that individuals learn deviant behavior through interaction with others. By associating with peers who devalue academic achievement, Fred adopts their norms and behaviors, leading to his decline in performance. This theory emphasizes that social learning is the primary mechanism for acquiring deviant patterns, as opposed to internal psychological factors or structural pressures alone.

Secondary deviance occurs when an individual internalizes a deviant label applied to them by others. According to labeling theory, once society labels a person as deviant, that individual may adopt this label as part of their identity, leading to further deviant behavior. This contrasts with primary deviance, which refers to the initial act of rule-breaking that has not yet resulted in a formal or informal deviant identity.

Thomas Scheff, a proponent of labeling theory, argued that mental illness is often a social construct. He suggested that when individuals violate 'residual rules'—the unspoken norms of everyday interaction—they are labeled as mentally ill by society. This labeling process forces the individual into an 'insanity role,' which is reinforced by social reactions and interactions within their immediate environment, effectively turning a behavioral deviation into a clinical identity.

Unlike other theories that focus on why individuals commit deviant acts, control theory (such as Travis Hirschi's social bond theory) shifts the focus to why people conform to social norms. It examines the social bonds and internal controls that prevent individuals from engaging in deviant behavior, arguing that deviance occurs when these bonds are weakened or broken.

Stigmatization, a concept popularized by Erving Goffman, refers to the process where an individual is devalued or discredited in the eyes of others. This involves being labeled as 'different' or deviant, which leads to a 'spoiled identity' and often results in social discrimination, exclusion, or marginalization within the broader society.

Sociologists argue that behaviour is defined as deviant or non-deviant by the reactions of other people. A social reaction of normalization means that rule-breaking behaviour is tolerated and indulged rather than sanctioned: it is seen as a temporary aberration from an otherwise ‘normal’, conformist person’s character.

Secondary deviation, a concept developed by Edwin Lemert, refers to the process where an individual adopts a deviant identity following the societal reaction to their initial (primary) rule-breaking. This includes the formal labeling, stigmatization, and punishment by social institutions. Once labeled, the individual's self-concept and future social interactions are altered, often leading to further deviant behavior as they internalize the deviant role imposed upon them by society.

Labeling theory suggests that when individuals are assigned a specific label by society, they may internalize that label and begin to act in accordance with it. This creates a self-fulfilling prophecy, where the expectation of behavior leads to the actualization of that behavior, reinforcing the original label.

Secondary deviation, a concept central to labeling theory, refers to the process where an individual internalizes a deviant label applied by society. This internalization often leads to the adoption of a deviant identity, which subsequently influences the individual's future behavior and social interactions. It encompasses the societal reaction, the stigma attached to the label, and the resulting behavioral changes that reinforce the deviant status.