CSS Criminology Set-1

Robert Merton was a pivotal figure in American sociology. He advocated for 'middle-range theories' that bridge abstract theory and empirical research. His strain theory of deviance, which examines the gap between cultural goals and institutionalized means, is a cornerstone of criminology. Furthermore, he sought to integrate macro-level structural analysis with micro-level social processes, making all the listed options significant contributions.

Biological positivism, rooted in the work of Cesare Lombroso, emphasizes innate physical or biological traits as the cause of criminal behavior. Historically, these theories focused heavily on violent and predatory crimes, attempting to link physical anomalies or genetic predispositions to aggressive acts. While modern biosocial criminology is more nuanced, the foundational focus of early biological positivism was predominantly on violent offenders.

The 'new criminology,' emerging in the 1970s, draws heavily from Marxist theory. It argues that crime is not merely an individual choice but a product of the structural inequalities inherent in capitalist societies. Proponents suggest that the legal system and definitions of deviance are constructed by the ruling class to protect their interests, maintain social hierarchy, and suppress challenges to their authority.

The 'New Criminology,' emerging in the 1970s, shifted the focus from individual pathology to the structural inequalities of capitalism. It argues that laws are created by the powerful to protect their interests and control the working class. By examining the political and economic context of crime, this perspective highlights how deviance is often a response to, or a label applied by, those in positions of authority.

Richard Quinney is a key figure in conflict criminology. He argued that the legal system is not neutral but is instead a tool used by the ruling class to maintain their dominance and control over subordinate groups by defining certain behaviors as criminal to protect their own interests.

Studies in criminology and sociology often examine the relationship between socioeconomic status, family structure, and delinquency. The correlation between poverty, single-parent homes, and juvenile violence is a frequent subject of analysis, often attributed to factors like reduced supervision, lack of economic resources, and environmental stressors that may influence youth behavior and increase the likelihood of involvement in criminal activity.

Recidivism is a critical metric in criminology and sociology, referring to the rate at which individuals who have been processed through the criminal justice system return to criminal behavior. High rates of recidivism are often analyzed to evaluate the effectiveness of penal institutions, rehabilitation programs, and the overall success of social reintegration efforts within a given society.

Recidivism refers to the relapse of a criminal offender into criminal behavior. It is a key metric in criminology used to evaluate the effectiveness of the justice system, including prison programs, rehabilitation efforts, and the overall impact of incarceration on preventing future offenses.

Edwin Sutherland is widely recognized for his work in criminology, particularly his theory of differential association. In his 1937 book, 'The Professional Thief', he collaborated with a professional criminal to provide a detailed, annotated account of the criminal subculture, which offered unique sociological insights into how criminal behavior is learned and maintained within specific social groups.

Cesare Lombroso, often considered the father of modern criminology, proposed the theory of atavism. He argued that criminals were evolutionary throwbacks who possessed specific physical or biological traits that predisposed them to criminal activity. His work shifted the focus of criminology from free will to biological determinism, suggesting that criminal behavior was an inherent characteristic rather than a purely social or environmental outcome.