Erik Erikson diverged significantly from Freud. While Freud focused on psychosexual stages and early childhood development, Erikson proposed a psychosocial theory spanning the entire lifespan. He rejected the idea that personality is fixed by age five and emphasized social and cultural influences over purely biological drives, making 'none of the above' the correct choice.

Research on isolated Amazonian tribes, such as the Pirahã, often supports the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. This theory posits that the structure of a language influences its speakers' worldview or cognition. The findings suggest that language not only reflects reality but actively shapes how individuals perceive and categorize their environment, supporting both the deterministic and influential views of linguistic relativity.

The provided answer key identifies Abraham Maslow; however, in standard sociological and psychological literature, symbolic interactionism is most prominently associated with George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley. Maslow is primarily known for his hierarchy of needs. This discrepancy suggests a potential conflict in the source material regarding the attribution of the theory, as Mead is widely considered the primary architect of the symbolic interactionist perspective.

Religion serves many functions, such as providing existential meaning, reinforcing social norms, and offering psychological comfort. However, it does not provide a single, universally accepted set of norms. In pluralistic societies, religious beliefs are diverse and often conflicting. Therefore, claiming that religion provides a universally agreed-upon set of norms is sociologically inaccurate, as religious diversity inherently leads to a variety of moral and ethical frameworks rather than a single global consensus.

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view the world primarily from the perspective of one's own culture. Because individuals are socialized within a specific cultural framework, they internalize its norms, values, and categories. These internalized structures act as a lens through which all new information is processed, making it difficult to evaluate other cultures objectively without referencing one's own cultural background.

Conscious socialization refers to the intentional and explicit efforts made by parents, teachers, or guardians to transmit cultural values, norms, and behaviors to a child. By explicitly instructing a child to say 'thank you,' the adult is actively shaping the child's social skills and moral development through direct communication and reinforcement of desired social conduct.

Secondary beliefs and values are more flexible and open to change, unlike core or primary ones which are deeply ingrained and resistant to modification. This flexibility allows for adaptation and evolution in consumer behavior in response to new experiences, social trends, or information, making them a key focus for marketers.

Cultural transmission theory, most notably associated with Edwin Sutherland, is synonymous with differential association theory. This perspective posits that criminal behavior is learned through social interaction with others who hold deviant values. Individuals become deviant when they are exposed to an excess of definitions favorable to violating the law compared to definitions unfavorable to violating the law within their primary social groups.

Psychosomatic illness refers to physical symptoms that are caused or exacerbated by psychological factors such as stress, anxiety, or emotional tension. These are not 'imaginary' but are real physiological manifestations of mental states. The mind-body connection plays a crucial role, where chronic emotional distress can lead to tangible health issues like hypertension, digestive problems, or skin conditions, requiring a holistic approach to treatment.

Behavior therapy, often referred to as behavior modification, is a clinical approach rooted in learning theory. It aims to change maladaptive behaviors by applying principles of operant conditioning, such as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. By systematically altering the consequences of specific actions, therapists help patients replace dysfunctional behaviors with more adaptive ones, focusing on observable outcomes rather than just internal psychological processes.