Aristotle defined constitutional rule (polity) as a government that operates for the common good, follows established laws, and governs willing citizens. He believed that such a system respects the dignity of the subjects, as it involves them in the political process. Therefore, a system inconsistent with the dignity of the subjects would contradict his ideal of constitutional governance.

After the premature death of his parents, Aristotle was placed under the guardianship of Proxenus of Atarneus. Proxenus played a significant role in Aristotle's early life, providing him with the necessary support and resources to pursue his education, which eventually led him to travel to Athens to join Plato's Academy at a young age.

The 'Eudemus', also known as 'On the Soul', was one of Aristotle's early dialogues. It was written in honor of his friend Eudemus of Cyprus, who died in battle. The work explores themes of the immortality of the soul and reflects the influence of Plato's thought on the young Aristotle before he developed his own distinct philosophical system.

While Aristotle made foundational contributions to logic, ethics, and political theory, he is not primarily known for mathematics. The provided answer key suggests 'Biology' is the correct choice; however, this is historically contentious as Aristotle is often called the 'father of biology' for his extensive zoological studies. This conflict arises because his contributions to logic and political science are far more central to his legacy than his biological works.

Aristotle emphasized the reciprocal relationship between the character of the citizenry and the quality of the state. In his 'Politics', he argued that the state is a community of citizens, and therefore, the virtue of the state is dependent upon the moral and intellectual cultivation of its members.

Aristotle viewed justice as a virtue that governs human interactions within the polis. While he had specific views on citizenship, his broader ethical framework emphasized that justice involves giving each person their due. He argued that justice is essential for the stability of the state and should be applied to maintain the balance and harmony of the community as a whole.

After leaving Plato's Academy, Aristotle established his own school in Athens known as the Lyceum. It became a major center for research and teaching, where Aristotle and his students, known as the Peripatetics, engaged in systematic study across various disciplines, including biology, ethics, and political science.

Following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, anti-Macedonian sentiment surged in Athens. Fearing for his safety due to his close association with the Macedonian court, Aristotle chose to leave Athens and retire to his mother's estate in Chalcis, located on the island of Euboea, where he remained until his death shortly thereafter.

Callisthenes of Olynthus was a Greek historian and a student of Aristotle. He was the son of Hero, who was Aristotle's cousin, making Callisthenes the nephew of the philosopher. He famously accompanied Alexander the Great on his Asian campaign before falling out of favor.

In his work 'Politics', Aristotle argued that some individuals are 'natural slaves' who lack the capacity for rational deliberation and are therefore best served by being under the control of a master. He viewed this hierarchy as a functional necessity for the household and the state, framing it as a natural arrangement rather than a social construct or an injustice.