'Kitab al-Kharaj' is a seminal work on Islamic taxation, land administration, and public finance written by Imam Abu Yusuf, the chief jurist of Caliph Harun al-Rashid.

Rival fits because it denotes a competing business that would look for opportunities to undermine or destroy him.

IBM stands for International Business Machine, so International Business Machine is the correct answer.

The National Identity Card system was established under the National Registration Act in 1973 during the administration of Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.

At around age 12, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) accompanied his uncle Abu Talib on a merchant caravan to Syria (al-Sham), where they met the monk Bahira at Busra.

In 2006, Zalmay Khalilzad was serving as the United States Ambassador to Iraq [1, p11]. He held this position from June 2005 to April 2007. Prior to this, he had served as the U.S. Ambassador to Afghanistan.

Han Myung-sook became the first woman to serve as Prime Minister of South Korea. She held the office from April 2006 to March 2007 [1, p11]. Her appointment was a significant milestone in South Korean politics.

As of 2007, Professor Abdus Salam was the only Pakistani citizen to have received a Nobel Prize [1, p7]. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979 for his work on the electroweak unification theory. Malala Yousafzai later became the second Pakistani Nobel laureate in 2014.

In 2007, Hugo Chávez was serving as the President of Venezuela [1, p7]. He held this office from 1999 until his death in 2013.

As of 2007, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), now known as the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, had 57 member states [1, p6]. This number has remained relatively stable, although Syria's membership was suspended in 2012.