Both Britain and France established significant colonial empires in North America and the Caribbean. In North America, they competed for territory in Canada and the Mississippi Valley, while in the Caribbean, they established plantation economies on various islands to produce sugar and other commodities.

Bernardo O'Higgins was a Chilean independence leader who fought for freedom from Spanish rule. He served as the first Supreme Director of Chile from 1817 to 1823. His leadership was instrumental in the Chilean War of Independence, and he is celebrated today as one of the primary architects of the Chilean state and its national identity.

Maria Cristina of Austria served as the Queen Regent of Spain during the minority of her son, Alfonso XIII. She held the regency during the Spanish-American War, a period characterized by the loss of Spain's remaining colonial empire in the Americas and the Philippines, which triggered a profound national crisis known as the 'Disaster of '98'.

Napoleon III, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, was the last monarch to rule France as Emperor. He reigned from 1852 until 1870, following the collapse of the Second Republic. His reign ended after the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, leading to his capture at the Battle of Sedan and the subsequent proclamation of the Third Republic in France, marking the end of the imperial era in French history.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire, in particular, featured rulers named Nebuchadnezzar, most notably Nebuchadnezzar II, who reigned from 605 to 562 BCE. He is historically renowned for his extensive building projects in Babylon, including the Ishtar Gate and the Hanging Gardens, as well as his military campaigns in the Levant, which are frequently referenced in ancient historical and religious texts.

While Jewish communities faced significant persecution and periodic expulsions from various European kingdoms during the medieval period, this option is often cited in historical curricula regarding the era's instability. It is important to note that Jewish experiences varied greatly by region and time period, with periods of relative tolerance alternating with systemic discrimination and forced migration across the continent.

The modern age, particularly the 19th and early 20th centuries, was defined by the expansion of European colonial empires. This era saw the 'Scramble for Africa' and the consolidation of vast territories in Asia and the Americas under European control. While the welfare state emerged later, the defining geopolitical feature of the modern era was the dominance of colonial powers and the global reach of imperial systems.

The Arab Revolt was largely motivated by British promises, specifically through the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, which suggested that the British would support the creation of an independent Arab state in the Middle East following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire. This promise was a critical factor in mobilizing Arab support for the Allied war effort.

European imperialism often created a shared sense of grievance among diverse local populations. By imposing foreign rule, administrative structures, and economic exploitation, colonial powers inadvertently provided a common enemy. This shared experience of subjugation catalyzed local movements, as indigenous populations organized themselves to resist foreign domination, ultimately leading to the rise of modern nationalist movements across Asia and Africa.

During the Second Boer War (1899–1902), the British military implemented a 'scorched earth' policy and established concentration camps. These camps were designed to house Boer civilians, including women and children, as well as Black Africans, to prevent them from supporting Boer commandos. The conditions in these camps were notoriously poor, leading to high mortality rates due to disease and malnutrition.