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81
Which of the following is the correct interpretation of a p-value in hypothesis testing?
A. The probability that the null hypothesis is true given the data
B. The probability that the alternative hypothesis is true
C. The probability of committing a Type II error
D. The probability of obtaining data as extreme as observed or more so, assuming the null hypothesis is true
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Explanation
A p-value is the probability, under H0, of observing data at least as extreme as the observed result; it is not the probability that H0 is true.
82
Among forms of decentralization, which grants the greatest degree of political and administrative autonomy to subordinate levels of government?
A. Deconcentration
B. Delegation
C. Devolution
D. Centralization
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Explanation
Devolution transfers powers and responsibilities to local governments with significant political and administrative autonomy, unlike deconcentration or delegation.
83
Which reliability coefficient is most appropriate for assessing the temporal stability of a psychological test when the same test is administered to the same group twice over time?
A. Internal consistency (e.g., Cronbach’s alpha) measuring item homogeneity.
B. Test–retest reliability measuring stability of scores over time.
C. Inter-rater reliability assessing agreement between different scorers.
D. Split-half reliability correlating two halves of a single administration.
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Explanation
Test–retest reliability evaluates whether test scores remain consistent across administrations separated by time, indicating temporal stability.
84
How did John Stuart Mill modify classical utilitarianism compared to Jeremy Bentham?
A. By rejecting the greatest-happiness principle in favor of deontological rules.
B. By introducing qualitative distinctions among pleasures, arguing some pleasures are higher than others.
C. By grounding morality in divine commands rather than consequences.
D. By asserting that individual rights always outweigh aggregate utility.
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Explanation
Mill retained the greatest-happiness principle but argued that intellectual and moral pleasures are qualitatively superior to mere bodily pleasures.
85
Why were nonviolent direct-action tactics effective during the U.S. Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s–1960s?
A. They avoided attracting national media attention and thus kept protests localized and private.
B. They exposed segregationist violence to national audiences and pressured federal authorities to intervene and legislate.
C. They immediately transformed Southern state governments into racially integrated administrations without federal laws.
D. They replaced all legal challenges with purely symbolic acts that required no legislative change.
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Explanation
Nonviolent protests attracted media coverage of brutal reactions, galvanising public opinion and prompting federal action such as civil rights legislation.
86
The 1952 Language Movement in East Pakistan was primarily triggered by which government decision?
A. the imposition of Islamic criminal codes in East Pakistan
B. the declaration of Urdu as the sole state language of Pakistan
C. the cancellation of provincial legislative sessions in East Bengal
D. the merger of East Pakistan with adjacent Indian provinces
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Explanation
The central government's promotion of Urdu as the sole state language sparked protests in East Pakistan demanding recognition of Bengali.
87
Which type of seismic wave generally causes the greatest destruction at Earth's surface during an earthquake?
A. Primary (P) waves
B. Secondary (S) waves
C. Body waves
D. Surface waves (Love and Rayleigh)
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Explanation
Surface waves (Love and Rayleigh) have larger amplitudes and longer durations at the surface, producing the most damage during earthquakes.
88
On the Mohs hardness scale, which mineral defines the lowest hardness value (1)?
A. Talc
B. Gypsum
C. Calcite
D. Quartz
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Explanation
Talc is the softest mineral and defines Mohs hardness 1, being easily scratched by all other minerals on the scale.
89
At room temperature (~20°C), sound travels fastest in which medium?
A. Air
B. Steel (solid)
C. Water (liquid)
D. Vacuum
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Explanation
Sound travels fastest in solids because of higher elastic modulus and density transmission properties; among the given options, steel (a solid) supports the highest speed.
90
Which cellular process generates the greatest amount of ATP per glucose molecule in aerobic eukaryotic cells?
A. Oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain and chemiosmosis)
B. Glycolysis
C. Citric acid (Krebs) cycle
D. Fermentation
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Explanation
Oxidative phosphorylation produces the majority of ATP (~26–34 ATP per glucose) via the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis, far exceeding glycolysis or the Krebs cycle alone.
