Callipus of Cyzicus was a Greek astronomer who studied under Eudoxus and later worked with Aristotle. He expanded upon Eudoxus's system of concentric spheres to better account for the observed irregularities in planetary motion. His modifications, including the introduction of additional spheres, were incorporated into the Aristotelian cosmological framework and remained influential until the development of the Ptolemaic system.

Callisthenes of Olynthus was a Greek historian and a great-nephew of Aristotle. He was invited by Alexander the Great to accompany his expedition to Asia to serve as the official historian of the campaign. His work aimed to document the military achievements of Alexander, though his relationship with the king eventually soured, leading to his imprisonment and death.

In his biological treatises, such as 'History of Animals', Aristotle classified animals based on their reproductive methods. He famously distinguished between viviparous animals (those that give birth to live young) and oviparous animals (those that lay eggs). This classification was part of his broader effort to categorize the natural world and understand the teleological purpose of different living organisms within the hierarchy of nature.

The members of Aristotle's school, the Lyceum, were known as Peripatetics. The term is derived from the Greek word 'peripatetikos,' meaning 'given to walking about.' This name originated from Aristotle's habit of walking while lecturing or discussing philosophical matters with his students in the covered walkways, or 'peripatoi,' of the Lyceum grounds in Athens.

Aristotle articulated this principle in his 'Nicomachean Ethics' and 'Politics'. He argued that justice is proportional, meaning that individuals should be treated according to their merit or contribution. This concept of distributive justice suggests that equals should receive equal shares, while those who are unequal in relevant respects should receive unequal shares, ensuring fairness within the political community.

Callisthenes of Olynthus was a Greek historian and a relative of Aristotle, specifically his nephew. He accompanied Alexander the Great on his Asian campaign to document the expedition. His eventual execution by Alexander for his refusal to perform the ritual of proskynesis further strained the relationship between Aristotle and the Macedonian king.

The 'Eudemus,' one of Aristotle's early dialogues, is heavily influenced by Plato's 'Phaedo.' Both works explore the nature of the soul, its immortality, and the philosophical arguments regarding the separation of the soul from the body. Aristotle's early writing style often mirrored his teacher's, focusing on metaphysical questions that were central to the Platonic tradition before he developed his own distinct empirical approach.

Aristotle argued in 'Politics' that the polis, or city-state, is the highest form of human community. He believed it was the only association capable of achieving self-sufficiency and providing the environment necessary for citizens to pursue the 'good life' and exercise virtue, which is not possible in smaller units like the family or village.

Aristotle argued that a city (polis) is not defined merely by its population or territory, but by its constitution (politeia). The constitution determines the distribution of offices, the nature of authority, and the way of life of the citizens. Therefore, the governing system is the formal cause that gives the city its specific identity and purpose.

Aristotle argued in his 'Politics' that man is by nature a political animal. He believed that the state is a natural entity and that individuals can only achieve their full potential and moral excellence by participating in the life of the polis.