Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used. In this scenario, the individual is unable to see the jacket as anything other than clothing, preventing them from utilizing it as a makeshift pillow. This mental block hinders creative problem-solving by restricting the perceived utility of objects to their conventional roles.

Insight refers to the cognitive process where an individual suddenly understands the solution to a problem or the relationship between elements of a situation. It is often associated with Gestalt psychology, which emphasizes the holistic perception of problems rather than trial-and-error learning.

This is a classic example of an analogy problem. Analogies require the individual to identify a relationship between two items (apple and fruit) and then apply that same relationship to a new pair of items (hamburger and food/meal). It tests the ability to recognize patterns and abstract relationships between concepts.

The representativeness heuristic is a mental shortcut used to judge the probability of an event by comparing it to an existing prototype or stereotype in our minds. By assuming Ken plays basketball because he fits the physical stereotype of a tall athlete, the observer ignores base rates and relies on how well he represents the category of 'basketball player' rather than statistical reality.

The string problem is an arrangement problem where the participant must use a tool in an unconventional way. Functional fixedness is the cognitive bias that prevents one from seeing an object's potential uses beyond its traditional function. Overcoming this barrier to reach the solution typically occurs through 'insight,' a sudden cognitive restructuring that allows the individual to perceive the correct way to arrange the available materials.

A mental set is a cognitive tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often based on past experiences or previous success. Even when a new, more efficient method is available, an individual may persist with the old strategy because it is familiar and has worked in the past, demonstrating a rigidity in problem-solving that prevents the adoption of better alternatives.

Numeracy involves the ability to apply mathematical concepts and arithmetic procedures effectively. In many cognitive models of problem-solving, basic arithmetic tasks are performed by retrieving established procedures from long-term memory, which allows for efficient and accurate calculation. This is a foundational aspect of cognitive processing in mathematical problem-solving.

Creative individuals often utilize visual imagery and spatial reasoning to conceptualize and solve complex problems. By mentally manipulating visual representations, they can explore multiple perspectives and innovative connections that might not be apparent through verbal or auditory processing alone. This reliance on visual thinking allows for a more holistic and flexible approach to problem-solving, facilitating the generation of novel ideas and creative solutions in various domains.

The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. Because vivid or memorable events are easier to recall, people often overestimate their frequency, leading to biased judgments that ignore broader statistical data.

Wolfgang Kohler's experiments with chimpanzees challenged the behaviorist view that all learning is based on trial-and-error. He observed that the animals would often pause, survey the environment, and then suddenly perform the correct action to solve the problem. He termed this 'insight'—a sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which allows for an immediate and effective solution without prior reinforcement.