Prior knowledge serves as a framework for encoding, storing, and retrieving new information. This influence is most directly observed in memory, where existing schemas help organize and interpret new data, significantly impacting what we retain.

Consolidation is the neurobiological process by which a memory trace is stabilized after initial acquisition. It involves the transformation of labile, short-term memories into more permanent, long-term memory stores. This process occurs over time, often involving the hippocampus and the cortex, and ensures that information is integrated into existing knowledge networks, making it less susceptible to disruption or decay.

Proactive interference occurs when older, previously learned information hinders the recall of newer information. Because the interference moves forward in time from the old memory to the new one, it is described as working in a forward direction.

Sensory memory is the initial stage of memory that holds incoming sensory information in its raw form for a very brief period, typically ranging from a fraction of a second to a few seconds. It acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses (iconic for vision, echoic for hearing) before the information is either attended to and moved into short-term memory or lost entirely.

Declarative (or explicit) memory is divided into two main categories: episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory involves the recollection of specific personal experiences tied to a particular time and place. Semantic memory involves the storage of general knowledge, facts, and concepts that are not linked to a specific personal experience. Both are forms of long-term memory that can be consciously recalled.

Hermann Ebbinghaus was a pioneer in the study of memory. His research on the 'forgetting curve' and the 'spacing effect' emphasized the importance of encoding—the process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory. Ebbinghaus demonstrated that the efficiency of learning is heavily dependent on how information is initially processed and encoded into the memory system.

Implicit memory, also known as non-declarative memory, involves skills and procedures that are performed automatically without conscious effort. Because the individual is able to solve the puzzle without explicitly recalling the learning process, this behavior is a classic example of procedural or implicit memory, which operates outside of conscious awareness.

Long-term memory is characterized by its vast, potentially unlimited capacity to store information over extended periods. Unlike short-term memory, which is limited in both duration and capacity, long-term memory allows for the retention of knowledge, skills, and experiences throughout a person's lifetime, though retrieval can sometimes be affected by interference or decay.

In psychology, specifically within the study of memory, Retrograde Amnesia (RA) refers to the loss of access to events that occurred, or information that was learned, before an injury or the onset of a disease. It is distinct from anterograde amnesia, which involves the inability to form new memories after an event.

Short-term memory is limited in both capacity (the number of items it can hold) and duration (the length of time it can hold information without rehearsal). The term 'length' refers to the temporal constraint, as information is lost rapidly if not transferred to long-term storage.