Functionalists analyze how conflict can stabilize society, such as by increasing in-group solidarity or acting as a safety valve. However, when conflict becomes so frequent or intense that it threatens the structural integrity of the social system, it is considered dysfunctional rather than functional, as it undermines the stability the theory seeks to explain.

Ethnic identity is the personal and subjective sense of belonging to a particular group based on shared cultural characteristics such as religion, language, customs, or history. This concept emphasizes the internal, psychological, and social aspects of group membership rather than just external or administrative labels. It is a dynamic process through which individuals construct their sense of self in relation to their cultural heritage.

Institutional discrimination is embedded in the standard operating procedures of organizations. It often arises when those in power, acting as 'gatekeepers', favor individuals who share their background, social class, or cultural traits. This homophily perpetuates existing inequalities by systematically excluding those who do not fit the established profile of the privileged group.

Sociologists define a minority group not just by numerical size, but by their lack of power and social status. A key sociological characteristic is the development of group solidarity, where members recognize their shared experience of subordination and discrimination, which fosters a collective identity and social cohesion among the group members.

The 'social construction of race' is a theory that suggests race is not an inherent biological category but a social invention used to classify people based on perceived physical differences. Sociologists argue that racial categories are created, maintained, and transformed through social, political, and historical processes. This perspective emphasizes that while race has no basis in genetics, it has profound real-world consequences due to the social meanings attached to it.

The Indian Appropriation Act of 1851 was a significant piece of U.S. legislation that authorized the establishment of reservations for Native American tribes in the West, marking a major shift in federal policy regarding indigenous land and sovereignty.

Historically, policies such as the forced assimilation of Native American children in boarding schools were designed to erase indigenous languages and traditions. These aggressive assimilationist policies were significantly challenged and began to be dismantled during the social and political shifts of the 1960s, which saw a rise in Native American activism and a push for cultural sovereignty and recognition.

In sociological models of assimilation and integration, pluralism is often represented by the formula A+B+C=D, where distinct groups (A, B, and C) combine to form a new, integrated, yet diverse society (D), maintaining their unique identities while participating in a shared social framework.

Sociologists argue that race is not a biological reality but a social construct. This means that racial categories are created, maintained, and transformed through social processes, historical contexts, and power dynamics rather than inherent genetic differences between groups of people.

The novel 'Invisible Man' is a seminal work of American literature that explores themes of identity and race. While the provided answer key identifies James Baldwin, literary history confirms that Ralph Ellison is the actual author of this specific novel. This discrepancy suggests a potential error in the source material's answer key.