Karl Marx's sociological framework, known as historical materialism, posits that the economic base of society—the mode of production—determines the social, political, and intellectual superstructure. Marx argued that class struggle, arising from the economic relationship between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers), is the fundamental force driving social change and shaping human history and social institutions.

Karl Marx posited that the economic base of society determines its superstructure, including its ideology. He argued that the ruling class uses this dominant ideology to justify their position and maintain control over the proletariat, thereby perpetuating the capitalist system.

Alienation, particularly in Marxian theory, refers to the estrangement of individuals from their work, the products of their labor, their fellow workers, and their own human potential. While options A and C describe aspects of alienation, the term is a multifaceted concept involving systemic separation. Since the provided options are incomplete or narrow definitions of a complex sociological phenomenon, 'None of these' is the designated answer, though it remains a subject of academic debate.

Karl Marx argued that history is defined by the struggle between social classes, specifically the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. He believed that the inherent conflict over the means of production and economic resources creates the tension necessary to drive societal transformation and historical progress.

The Marxian view posits that history progresses through dialectical materialism. Each stage of society contains internal contradictions, specifically class conflict, which inevitably lead to the destruction of the current system and the emergence of a new, subsequent stage of development.

Marx viewed religion as an ideological tool that served the interests of the ruling class by masking class inequality and providing false comfort to the oppressed. He believed that once a socialist revolution occurred and the economic base of society was transformed, the need for such ideological illusions would vanish, leading to the eventual decline of religion.

Karl Marx argued that under capitalism, workers become alienated from their work, the products of their labor, their fellow workers, and their own human potential. This alienation occurs because the worker is treated as a mere commodity in the production process, losing autonomy and connection to the creative output of their labor.

Karl Marx identified the conflict between the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (wage laborers) as the defining feature of capitalist social structure. He argued that this economic relationship creates inherent inequality and class struggle, which eventually leads to the development of class consciousness and the potential for revolutionary social change.

Marx argued that capitalism leads to alienation, where workers become disconnected from their labor, the products they create, their fellow humans, and their own human potential. This alienation, combined with exploitation and the struggle for survival, results in widespread unhappiness and social conflict, which Marx believed would eventually lead to the collapse of the capitalist system.

Historical materialism is the methodological framework developed by Marx, which posits that the material conditions of a society's mode of production fundamentally determine its social organization and development. It focuses on how economic forces drive historical change, contrasting with idealist interpretations that prioritize ideas or consciousness as the primary drivers of history.