Gender identity refers to a person's deeply held internal perception of their own gender. While 'sex' refers to biological characteristics and 'gender' often refers to social roles, 'gender identity' specifically captures the psychological sense of self regarding one's gender, which may or may not align with the sex assigned at birth.

Robin Lakoff's research explored how gender influences language use and communication styles. She suggested that men and women are socialized into different communicative norms. In her analysis, men were often found to be less inclined toward the emotional self-disclosure and rapport-building talk that is frequently encouraged in female socialization, often favoring more instrumental or task-oriented communication styles in their interactions.

The term 'gay' is widely used to describe individuals, particularly men, who experience romantic or sexual attraction to members of the same sex. While historically used as a broader umbrella term, it is now the standard identifier for men who are homosexual, distinguishing them from other sexual orientations.

Judith Butler's theory of gender identity emphasizes that gender is a performance and has no inherent biological basis. Instead, it's about the actions and expressions individuals use to convey their gender. Biological sex being the determining factor contradicts this notion, making it an incorrect aspect of her theory.

In sociology, gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities of girls, women, boys, men, and gender-diverse people. It is distinct from biological sex, which refers to physiological characteristics. Gender is learned through socialization and varies across different cultures and historical periods.

The term transgender refers to individuals whose internal sense of gender does not align with the sex they were assigned at birth. This is a matter of gender identity rather than sexual orientation or physical arousal. It is a fundamental concept in understanding gender diversity within sociological studies of identity and social roles.

Davis argues that women often pursue cosmetic surgery not necessarily to achieve an abstract standard of 'perfection,' but to address specific body parts they perceive as stigmatizing. These perceptions are heavily influenced by cultural ideals of femininity, which are reinforced by media and advertising. Consequently, surgery is viewed as a corrective measure to align one's physical appearance with the perceived 'normal' body, thereby mitigating the social stigma associated with perceived physical flaws.

Carol Smart's sociological analysis posits that female criminal activity is not random but is instead deeply influenced by the gendered structure of society. She argues that the types of offenses women are typically convicted of—such as petty theft of household items or involvement in sex work—are direct reflections of the traditional domestic and social roles assigned to women. This perspective highlights how gender socialization shapes the nature of deviance.

Judith Butler's theory of gender performativity argues that gender is a social construct created through repetitive acts rather than an innate biological reality. Therefore, the idea that biological sex underpins gender identity contradicts her core thesis, which rejects essentialism and biological determinism in favor of social performance.

Thomas Laqueur's work 'Making Sex' argues that the shift from a 'one-sex' model, where women were seen as inverted men, to a 'two-sex' model occurred during the Enlightenment. This new model emphasized biological differences, categorizing males and females as fundamentally distinct and separate sexes, which served to justify social and political inequalities between genders.