Islamic bioethics generally differentiates between the status of an embryo at different stages. Since 'ensoulment' (Ruh) is believed to occur later in development, many legal councils allow stem cell research on surplus embryos from IVF clinics if it serves the purpose of curing diseases or advancing life-saving medicine.

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi wrote 'The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing' (Al-Jabr). His name was Latinized as 'Algoritmi,' which became the source for the word 'algorithm,' and his book title gave us the word 'algebra.'

Al-Tusi, the director of the Maragha Observatory, developed the Tusi-couple to better explain the linear motion of celestial bodies within circular orbits. This mathematical innovation corrected errors in Ptolemy's model and was essential for the eventual development of the Copernican revolution in Europe.

The Quran frequently mentions 'Mizan' (Balance), stating that God has 'set the balance' of the cosmos (55:7-8). This is interpreted as the physical laws of equilibrium in nature, from gravity to the delicate balance of ecosystems, and serves as a warning for humans not to disrupt this order.

In his 'Muqaddimah,' Ibn Khaldun discussed the gradual progression of creation from minerals to plants and then to animals, mentioning that 'the world of monkeys' is the stage where 'the animal world' reaches its end. While not a proponent of Darwinian evolution, his observations on natural gradations are often discussed in the context of Islamic views on biological change.

Al-Razi wrote 'The Treatise on Smallpox and Measles,' providing the first clear distinction between the two diseases. He also promoted the use of alcohol as an antiseptic and advocated for patient-centered care, making him one of the most original medical thinkers of the medieval period.

The need to determine the Qibla (direction of Makkah) from any location and to calculate precise times for the five daily prayers drove Muslims to excel in astronomy and spherical trigonometry. This led to the development of sophisticated instruments like the astrolabe and quadrant.

Most modern Islamic scholars find no conflict between the Big Bang theory and the Quran. They view the theory as a description of 'how' the universe began, while the Quran affirms 'who' started the process. The scriptural references to a 'joined entity' being 'separated' (21:30) are often cited as being in harmony with the theory.

Established by Caliph Harun al-Rashid and expanded by Al-Ma'mun, the House of Wisdom was a massive library and research institute. It became the epicenter of the Translation Movement, where scholars of various faiths translated the works of Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, and Indian mathematicians, sparking the intellectual revolution of the Golden Age.

Al-Battani was one of the greatest astronomers of the Islamic Golden Age. He calculated the solar year to be 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes, and 24 seconds, which is extremely close to modern measurements. His work heavily influenced later European astronomers like Copernicus and Brahe.