Mahmud of Ghazni (r. 998–1030) was the first ruler to carry the title of Sultan. He conducted seventeen campaigns into the Indian subcontinent, making Ghazni a world-class center of Persianate Islamic culture.
912
In 945 CE, the Abbasid Caliphate lost its political independence when Baghdad was captured by which Shia dynasty?
The Buyids were a Daylamite dynasty of Iranian origin. They occupied Baghdad and forced the Abbasid caliphs to remain as figureheads while the Buyid 'Amirs' held real military and political power for over a century.
913
The conversion of the Volga Bulgars to Islam in 922 CE was documented by which famous diplomat and traveler?
Ibn Fadlan was sent by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Muqtadir to the Volga Bulgar king. His detailed travelogue (Risala) provides one of the earliest and most vivid accounts of the Turkic peoples and the early Rus' in Northern Europe.
914
The Tulunid Dynasty (868–905 CE) marked the first time that Egypt became independent from which central authority?
Ahmad ibn Tulun, an Abbasid governor of Turkic origin, took advantage of the central caliphate's weakness to establish his own rule. He built the magnificent Ibn Tulun Mosque in Cairo, which still stands today.
915
The Aghlabid Dynasty, founded in 800 CE in Tunisia, were nominally vassals of the Abbasids but successfully conquered which Mediterranean island?
The Aghlabids launched the invasion of Sicily in 827 CE. The conquest lasted several decades and resulted in the establishment of the Emirate of Sicily, which flourished as a hub of trade and agricultural innovation.
916
The Idrisid Dynasty, founded in 788 CE, was the first autonomous state in Morocco to be established by a descendant of:
Idris I, a great-grandson of Hasan ibn Ali (RA), fled to the Maghreb after the Battle of Fakhkh. He was welcomed by the Berber tribes and founded the city of Fes, which became a center of Islamic culture and learning.
917
Abd al-Rahman I, the sole survivor of the Abbasid purge, established an independent Umayyad Emirate in which region?
After escaping the massacre in Syria, Abd al-Rahman I reached Spain in 756 CE. He defeated the local governor at the Battle of Musarah and founded a dynasty in Cordoba that would last for nearly $300$ years.
918
The Battle of Poitiers (also known as the Battle of Tours) in 732 CE saw the Umayyad forces defeated by which Frankish leader?
The battle took place between Tours and Poitiers in modern France. The victory of Charles Martel's Frankish forces stopped the Umayyad northward advance from Spain and is often cited by historians as a decisive moment in European history.
919
The Second Umayyad Siege of Constantinople (717–718 CE) was led by which prince and general?
Maslama led a massive land and sea operation against the city. Despite the investment of significant resources, the siege failed due to strong Byzantine defenses, the harsh winter, and the effective use of Greek Fire.
920
The first Umayyad Siege of Constantinople (674–678 CE) is noted for the Byzantine use of which secret weapon?
Greek Fire was a highly flammable liquid that could burn even on water. It allowed the Byzantine fleet to destroy the Umayyad naval blockade and was a primary reason for the failure of the first major Muslim attempt to take the city.
