Al-Jahiz observed that animals must struggle for food and survival, and that those with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and pass them on. His early ideas on natural selection and adaptation were revolutionary and preceded Darwin by a millennium.

Ibn al-Baitar's work cataloged over 1,400 medicinal plants, minerals, and animal products. He provided detailed descriptions of their uses and properties, making his book the most authoritative source on botany and pharmacy for several centuries in both the East and the West.

Abu al-Hasan al-Uqlidisi wrote 'The Book of Chapters on Hindu Arithmetic' (952 CE). He was the first to use decimal fractions in a systematic way, significantly simplifying calculations and laying the groundwork for the modern decimal system used in science today.

The Quran distinguishes between the sun, which generates its own light through nuclear fusion (described as 'Siraj' - a lamp/torch), and the moon, which merely reflects that light (described as 'Noor' - light/glow). This linguistic distinction aligns with modern physics and astronomy.

Anatomically, the fetus is protected by three distinct layers: the outer abdominal wall, the muscular wall of the uterus, and the amnion or amniotic sac. The Quranic reference to 'three veils of darkness' (Zulumat thalath) is often cited as a precise description of the embryonic environment.

Mainstream Islamic schools of thought, based on Hadith, generally hold that the soul enters the fetus at 120 days (4 months). While abortion is discouraged from the start, the moral and legal penalties become much more severe after this stage, though some schools like the Shafi'is emphasize an earlier prohibition at 40 days.

Hima is a traditional Islamic system of land management where specific areas are designated as protected zones to prevent overgrazing or forest depletion. This system represents an early and effective form of environmental conservation rooted in the common welfare (Maslaha).

Al-Kashi, based in Samarkand, was a master of computational mathematics. His precision in calculating $\pi$ remained a world record for 180 years, and his work on decimal fractions was essential for the transition to modern arithmetic.

Ibn Bajjah argued that the force of a moving body is resisted only by the medium it moves through. He theorized that in a vacuum, a body would still have a finite velocity, an idea that influenced the later developments of dynamics and Galileo's laws of motion.

Al-Sufi's work was a landmark in observational astronomy. He updated Ptolemy's star charts and was the first to mention the 'small cloud' that we now know as the Andromeda Galaxy, nearly 700 years before European astronomers identified it.