Karl Marx was a proponent of dialectical materialism, which posits that matter is the fundamental substance in nature and that all phenomena, including consciousness and social structures, are the result of material interactions. He explicitly rejected metaphysical or idealist notions such as a 'universal soul' or divine spirit, arguing instead that the material conditions of production determine the social, political, and intellectual life processes.

The correct sequence is: 1) Theses on Feuerbach (1845), 2) The Poverty of Philosophy (1847), 3) The Communist Manifesto (1848), and 4) A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859). This timeline tracks Marx's intellectual evolution from his critique of German philosophy to his foundational work on historical materialism and the critique of capitalism.

Marx identified four primary aspects of alienation under capitalism: alienation from the product of labor, the process of labor, one's 'species-essence' (humanity), and other human beings. These dimensions collectively describe the estrangement of the worker from their own creative potential and social existence within a capitalist system.

Marx argued that capitalism creates its own 'grave-diggers' by concentrating the proletariat in factories and fostering class consciousness. As the contradictions of capitalism intensify, the struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (wage laborers) becomes irreconcilable, inevitably leading to a revolutionary overthrow of the existing social and economic order.

Louis Althusser, a prominent structuralist Marxist, famously proposed an 'epistemological break' in Marx's work. He argued that there is a distinct divide between the early, humanist, and Hegelian-influenced writings of the 'Young Marx' and the later, scientific, and structuralist works of the 'Mature Marx.' This distinction was crucial for Althusser's attempt to interpret Marxism as a science rather than a philosophy of the subject.

Marxian theory is built upon several foundational pillars, including class struggle, the theory of surplus value, and the centralization of capital. Since all three options listed are indeed integral components of Karl Marx's economic and political critique, the statement that none of them are wrongly listed is correct. These concepts collectively explain the historical progression of societies and the inherent contradictions within capitalist systems that lead to their eventual transformation.

The chronological sequence of these works is: 'The Holy Family' (1845), 'The Poverty of Philosophy' (1847), 'The Communist Manifesto' (1848), and 'A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy' (1859). This progression illustrates the development of Marx's thought from his early philosophical critiques to his mature economic theories, reflecting his evolving analysis of class struggle, historical materialism, and the capitalist mode of production.

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, a French philosopher and the first person to self-identify as an anarchist, coined the phrase 'property is theft' in his 1840 work 'What is Property?'. He argued that property rights allow owners to exploit the labor of others, effectively stealing the value produced by workers.

Marxian socialism is primarily defined by its critique of capitalism, the necessity of class struggle, and the eventual transition to a stateless, classless society. While Marxists aim for a society that benefits all, the specific focus is on the abolition of private property and the seizure of the means of production by the proletariat, rather than a vague community-based production system.

Karl Marx received his doctorate from the University of Jena in 1841, but the provided answer key indicates 'Masters degree'. This discrepancy suggests a potential factual error in the source material, as Marx is historically recognized for his doctoral work on Democritus and Epicurus. The answer is provided as per the source key.