Marxism posits that the state is not a divine or natural entity, but a historical construct that emerges as a result of class divisions. It is a product of economic development, specifically the emergence of private property, which necessitates a coercive apparatus to manage class antagonisms and protect the interests of the dominant economic class.

Marxist theory posits that the state acts as an instrument of the ruling class. In the international arena, this translates to the idea that foreign policy and international relations are extensions of domestic class interests. Nations are viewed as competing entities that serve the economic interests of their respective national bourgeoisies, thereby projecting internal class conflicts onto the global stage through imperialist competition and state-led economic expansion.

Marxist theory posits that the final stage of historical development, communism, is a classless society. In this state, the means of production are held in common, effectively eliminating the economic basis for the division between the bourgeoisie (owners of capital) and the proletariat (wage laborers). Consequently, the exploitation inherent in class-based systems ceases to exist.

In Marxist theory, the 'dictatorship of the proletariat' refers to a transitional state where the working class (proletariat) holds political power. This phase is intended to dismantle the capitalist state apparatus, suppress the resistance of the bourgeoisie, and facilitate the socialization of the means of production, ultimately leading to a classless, stateless communist society.

This famous phrase appears in the 'Communist Manifesto' by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It reflects the Marxist view that in a capitalist society, the state apparatus is not a neutral arbiter but a tool used by the bourgeoisie to maintain their economic dominance and suppress the proletariat.

While Friedrich Engels coined the term 'Scientific Socialism' to distinguish Marxist theory from utopian socialism, Karl Marx is universally regarded as the primary architect and chief exponent of the theory. The source answer identifies Marx as the central figure, though Engels was his indispensable collaborator in developing these foundational ideas.

Classical Marxism posits that the capitalist state is an instrument of class oppression that cannot be reformed from within. Therefore, the proletariat must engage in a revolutionary overthrow of the existing bourgeois order to establish the dictatorship of the proletariat, eventually leading to a classless communist society. This historical materialist view emphasizes the necessity of structural rupture over gradual reform.

Marxist theory posits that the dictatorship of the proletariat is a transitional phase between capitalism and communism. During this period, the working class seizes state power to suppress the resistance of the bourgeoisie and dismantle the capitalist structure, ensuring that counter-revolutionary forces cannot restore the previous exploitative system.

Marxist theory posits that the state is not a neutral entity serving the common good. Instead, it is viewed as a superstructure that reflects the economic base of society. Consequently, the state functions as an instrument of exploitation, enabling the ruling class to maintain its dominance over the means of production and extract surplus value from the labor of the working class.

Karl Marx formulated the theory of surplus value to explain the mechanics of capitalist exploitation. He argued that the value created by workers exceeds the wages they receive, and this 'surplus' is appropriated by the capitalist, forming the basis of profit and capital accumulation.