Marx argued that surplus value is extracted from labor. Methods like lowering wages (absolute surplus value) or extending working hours (absolute surplus value) or increasing productivity through technology (relative surplus value) are standard mechanisms. Eliminating workers from the market does not generate surplus value for the capitalist; rather, it reduces the labor force necessary for production, which contradicts the capitalist's need for labor to create value.

While Marx extensively analyzed the dynamics of capitalism and its global expansion, he did not explicitly formulate a theory of 'underdevelopment' in the modern sense used by later dependency theorists. His focus remained on the internal contradictions of capitalist production and the inevitable transition to socialism, rather than the specific developmental status of peripheral nations.

G.W.F. Hegel is associated with dialectical idealism, while Karl Marx developed dialectical materialism. Mao Zedong initiated the Cultural Revolution in China, and Vladimir Lenin authored 'The State and Revolution', a seminal work on the nature of the state and the necessity of proletarian revolution.

Marx is primarily associated with the critique of capitalism and class struggle, not specifically with the notion of a welfare state. The other pairings accurately reflect the thinkers' ideas on the state.

Karl Marx is the central figure associated with the theory of class struggle. He posited that the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, where opposing groups—such as the bourgeoisie and the proletariat—compete for control over the means of production. This conflict is viewed as the primary driver of historical change and social evolution.

Louis Althusser is the central figure associated with Structural Marxism. He sought to interpret Marx's work through a structuralist lens, emphasizing the role of ideological state apparatuses and rejecting humanistic interpretations of Marxism. His contributions significantly influenced political theory by shifting focus from individual agency to the structural conditions of society.

The provided answer key identifies 2, 3, and 4 as correct. However, there is a scholarly debate regarding statement 3, as Marx is generally considered a critic of possessive individualism rather than an advocate. The answer is preserved as per the source, but users should note the potential for theoretical disagreement.

In Marxist theory, the 'dictatorship of the proletariat' refers to a transitional state where the working class holds political power. It is described as a 'dictatorship' because it involves the suppression of the former ruling class (the bourgeoisie) to prevent counter-revolution and to facilitate the restructuring of society toward a classless, communist system.

Karl Marx posited that class structure is defined by the relationship between individuals and the means of production. Those who own the capital, land, and factories constitute the bourgeoisie, while those who possess only their labor power constitute the proletariat. This structural relationship is the fundamental driver of class conflict, as the owners extract surplus value from the workers, creating an inherent antagonism that defines the socio-economic dynamics of capitalist society.

Marx argued that technological development, or the advancement of the 'forces of production,' is central to capital accumulation. By increasing productivity, capitalists can reduce the socially necessary labor time required for commodities, thereby increasing relative surplus value. While wage suppression is a component of exploitation, Marx emphasized that the constant revolutionizing of production through technology is the driving force of capitalist expansion and accumulation.